About the Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine

David J. Foran, PhD
Chief Informatics Officer and Director, Computational Imaging and Biomedical Informatics - Cancer Institute of New Jersey
Chief Research Informatics Officer - Rutgers Health
Professor Pathology, Laboratory Medicine and Radiology - Robert Wood Johnson Medical School
foran@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Sarah Hitchcock-DeGregori, PhD
Professor Emerita
hitchcoc@emeritus.rutgers.edu

Joseph Kramer, PhD
Assistant Professor
kramerjo@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Frederick H. Silver, PhD
Professor
silverfr@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Martha C. Soto, PhD
Professor
sotomc@rwjms.rutgers.edu

William G. Wadsworth, PhD
Professor
william.wadsworth@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Donald A. Winkelmann, PhD
Professor
winkelma@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Peter D. Yurchenco, MD, PhD
Professor
Director of the Division of Experimental Pathology
Vice Chair of Research
Medical Director of Electron Microscopy Services
yurchenc@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Valerie A. Fitzhugh, MD
Professor and Chair
fitzhuva@njms.rutgers.edu

Aqeel Ahmed, MBBS
Assistant Professor
Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital in Somerset
aa2697@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Randah Al-Kana, MBBS
Assistant Professor
Medical Director
Community Medical Center
ra1013@rwjms.rutgers.edu 

Asima Arslan, MD
Associate Professor
Medical Director
Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital in Hamilton
arsianas@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Jasminka Balderacchi, MD
Associate Professor
Medical Director for Monmouth Medical Center
Monmouth Medical Center Southern Campus
jasminka.balderacchi@rwjbh.org

Sarag Boukhar, MD
Associate Professor
Director of Gastrointestinal Pathology
Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital in New Brunswick
sb1379@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Tamar C. Brandler, MD, MS
Associate Professor
Director of Cytopathology
Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital in New Brunswick
tamar.brandler@rutgers.edu

Mary Carayannopoulos, PhD
Associate Professor
Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital in New Brunswick
carayamo@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Marina Chekmareva, MD
Associate Professor
Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital in New Brunswick
chekmama@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Tsuey-Ling Chen, MD
Associate Professor
Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital in Somerset
tsueyling.chen@rutgers.edu

Ying Chen, MD
Assistant Professor
Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey
ying.chen@rutgers.edu

Subhajyoti De, PhD
Assistant Professor
Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey
sd948@cinj.rutgers.edu

Maria De Los Angeles Muniz, MD
Assistant Professor
Co-Director of Transfusion Medicine
Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital in New Brunswick
md1822@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Siraj El Jamal, MD
Associate Professor
Director of Immunohistochemistry
Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital in New Brunswick
sml362@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Nirag Jhala, MD
Professor
Vice Chair
Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital in New Brunswick
nj407@cinj.rutgers.edu

Billie Fyfe-Kirschner, MD
Professor
Director Residency Program
Director of Autopsy
Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital in New Brunswick
fyfekibs@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Dariusz Galkowski, MD, PhD
Clinical Associate Professor
Associate Director of Residency Program
Rutgers Health Point of Care Testing Director
Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital in New Brunswick
galkowd1@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Lauri Goodell, MD
Associate Professor
Division Chief of Hematopathology
Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital in New Brunswick
goodell@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Ying Guo, MD
Professor
Director of Dermatopathology
Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital in New Brunswick
ying.guo@rutgers.edu

Mohammad Hafiz, MBBS
Assistant Professor
Community Medical Center
mah393@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Rachel Hudacko, MD
Associate Professor
Medical Director
Newark Beth Israel Medical Center
hudackra@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Yong Kang, MD
Assistant Professor
Monmouth Medical Center
yk489@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Thomas J. Kirn, MD, PhD
Professor
Director of Microbiology & Infectious Disease Diagnostics
Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital in New Brunswick
State of New Jersey Department of Health
Public Health and Environmental Laboratory
kirntj@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Lin Li, MD, PhD
Associate Professor
Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital in New Brunswick
lin.li2@rutgers.edu

Stacey Longo, MD
Assistant Professor
Director of Transfusion Medicine and Blood Banking
Monmouth Medical Center
Monmouth Medical Center Southern Campus

Amin Maghari, MD
Assistant Professor
Community Medical Center
magharam@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Eugene Martin, PhD
Professor
Director of University Diagnostic Laboratory
Rutgers Health Clinic in Somerset
martineu@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Kant Matsuda, MD
Assistant Professor
Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital in New Brunswick
km1325@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Andrew Parrott, MD, PhD
Assistant Professor
Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital in New Brunswick
parrotam@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Maressa Pollen, MD
Assistant Professor
Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital in New Brunswick
noto@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Ali Rashidbaigi. MD
Assistant Professor
Monmouth Medical Center
rashidba@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Greg Riedlinger, MD, PhD
Associate Professor
Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital in New Brunswick
Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey
gr338@cinj.rutgers.edu

Ali Saad, MD
Professor
Director - Pediatric & Perinatal Pathology Service, Neuropathology, Bone & Soft Tissue Pathology
Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital in New Brunswick

Gratian Salaru, MD
Associate Professor
Director of the Clinical Laboratory
Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital in New Brunswick
salarugr@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Virian Serei, MD, PhD
Assistant Professor
Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital in New Brunswick
sereivd@rutgers.edu

Wendy T. Shertz-DiPietro, MD
Assistant Professor
Monmouth Medical Center
ws395@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Richard Siderits, MD
Associate Professor
Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital in Hamilton
siderirh@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Payal Sojitra, MD
Associate Professor
Director Hematopathology Fellowship Program
Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital in New Brunswick
ps1067@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Brian Stanford, DO
Associate Professor
Medical Director
Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital in Somerset
bs211@rutgers.edu

Yi Sun, MD, PhD
Assistant Professor
Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital in New Brunswick
ys859@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Oliver Szeto, MD
Associate Professor
Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital in New Brunswick
oliver.szeto@rwjbh.org

Grace C. Tenorio, MD
Assistant Professor
Co-Director of Transfusion Medicine
Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital in New Brunswick
tenorigc@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Dingming Yang, MD
Assistant Professor
Community Medical Center
yangdi@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Xin Yu, PhD
Assistant Professor
CINJ
yuxi@cinj.rutgers.edu

Zhongren (David) Zhou, MD, PhD
Professor
Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital in New Brunswick
Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey
zz442@rwjms.rutgers.edu

•  Diane Ambrose - Adjunct Assistant Professor
•  Peter Amenta - Emeritus Professor
•  David Artz - Adjunct Associate Professor
•  Barry Barnoski - Adjunct Associate Professor
•  Sharathkumar Bhagavathi - Clinical Assistant Professor
•  Charlene Bierl - Adjunct Assistant Professor
•  Kari Briggs - Clinical Assistant Professor
•  Evan Cadoff - Emeritus Professor
•  Jeanette Camacho - Adjunct Associate Professor
•  Abhijeet Chaubal - Clinical Assistant Professor
•  Frederick DiCarlo - Clinical Associate Professor
•  Tina Edmonston - Adjunct Associate Professor
•  Brian Erler - Clinical Associate Professor
•  Clinton Ewing - Clinical Assistant Professor
•  Helen Haupt - Adjunct Professor
•  Sarah Hitchcock - Emeritus Professor
•  Jane Date C. Hon - Clinical Instructor
•  Parisa Javidian - Emeritus Professor
•  Li Jin - Clinical Assistant Professor
•  Diane Karluk - Clinical Assistant Professor
•  William Klump - Adjunct Assistant Professor
•  Sunita Kramer - Adjunct Associate Professor
•  Elliot Krauss - Clinical Associate Professor
•  Mercy Kuriyan - Emeritus Professor
•  Friedrich Laub - Adjunct Assistant Professor
•  Bette Lazzaro - Adjunct Associate Professor
•  Marvin Lessig - Clinical Associate Professor
•  Adriana Lombardi - Clinical Assistant Professor
•  Ramesh Mahapatro - Adjunct Associate Professor
•  Theodore Matulewicz - Clinical Associate Professor
•  Masako Mizusawa - Clinical Associate Professor
•  Jeanne Myers - Adjunct Associate Professor
•  Zaida Olmo-Durham - Clinical Assistant Professor
•  Xin Qi - Adjunct Associate Professor
•  William Rafferty - Adjunct Assistant Professor
•  Karel Raska - Professor
•  Carolyn Revercomb - Adjunct Assistant Professor
•  Roy Rhodes - Emeritus Professor
•  Eric Richfield - Emeritus Professor
•  Ivan Rodero - Adjunct Assistant Professor
•  Evita Sadimin - Clinical Associate Professor
•  Amrik Sahota - Clinical Professor
•  Roland Schwarting - Adjunct Professor
•  Frederick Stone - Clinical Professor
•  Kong Tan - Clinical Assistant Professor
•  Alex Zhang - Clinical Assistant Professor
•  Lanjing Zhang - Clinical Assistant Professor

• Community Medical Center - Toms River, NJ
• Monmouth Medical Center - Long Branch, NJ
• Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital at New Brunswick - New Brunswick, NJ
• Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital at Hamilton - Hamilton, NJ
• Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital at Somerset - Somerville, NJ
• Rutgers Health - Center for Dermatology - Somerset, NJ

• Emory University
• University of Pennsylvania
• University of Texas/Houston
• New Jersey Department of Health:
  • Division of HIV/Aids Services (DHAS)
  • Public Health and Environmental Laboratories (PHEL)
• The Department of Human Services (DHS)
• Division of Mental Health and Addiction Services
• Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey

The Department of Pathology Electron Microscopy Laboratory offers state-of-the-art equipment and expertise for the current needs of the department, the Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital, Rutgers University, the Cancer Institute of New Jersey, and the private sector.

We carry out a wide range of services from conventional electron microscopy to negative staining. The facility is organized to encourage the use of the equipment by individual users both within and outside the university. Individual and small-group instruction in the use of equipment and in electron microscopy techniques is provided to faculty, staff, post-doctoral fellows and residents. In addition, electron microscopy services are available for a set fee. Examples of some the services provided are: Routine sample preparation for transmission electron microscopy, including specimen preparation, specimen observation and image capturing, ultrathin sectioning and negative staining.

Those interested in Cryoelectron Microscopy please visit the Cryo-EM/ET core facility, located in the Rutgers Institute for Quantitative Biomedicine.

More Information on the Core Imaging Laboratory

Raj Patel
Lab Manager
683 Hoes Lane West
School of Public Health, Room 24
Piscataway, NJ 08854
Phone: (732) 235-4648
Fax: (732) 235-4819
Email: rpatel@rwjms.rutgers.edu

We are academic pathologists with many years of experience and subspecialty training in all organ systems. We practice in a state-of-the-art facility with on-site specialty studies including immunohistochemistry, electron mircoscopy, immunoflorescence, cytogenetics, post-mortem chemistry and microbiology. We have a team of board-certified neuropathologists ready to handle even the toughest dementia cases.

• We perform complete or partial autopsy and brain-only autopsy.
• We offer verbal consultation with families at the time of autopsy request as well as to discuss the autopsy findings.
• Autopsies are done in a timely manner to facilitate ease of timing of funeral services.
• We are available for autopsies Monday through Friday from 8 am to 4 pm.
• To access this service or to receive additional information, please call (732) 507-8613 to speak to a member of our Autopsy Service team.

Please note: We require an authorized individual to sign consent forms for the Rutgers Regional Autopsy Service and for Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital. These forms are faxed upon request for services.

Transportation to and from our convenient New Brunswick facility is arranged and paid for by the family.

For pricing inquiry, please contact Dr. Billie Fyfe at fekibs@rwjms.rutgers.edu.

Our Outpatient Surgical Pathology Services provides surgical pathologic diagnoses for tissue samples obtained from patients in ambulatory practices. Special diagnostic microscopy services are available, if needed.

Special Treatments or Services

Gastrointestinal pathology (e.g., colonic biopsies), Dermatopathology, Ob/Gyn pathology (e.g., cervical biopsies and cytologies), Breast pathology, Hematopathology (e.g., bone marrow, lymph nodes), Uromuscular pathology, Renal pathology, and Genitourinary pathology (e.g., prostate biopsies). Courier services available.

Contact Us

1 Robert Wood Johnson Place
New Brunswick, NJ 08901
Phone: 732-937-8596

Histopathologic consultations are available from members of the Department. These services are provided to pathologists and surgeons for the purpose of resolving diagnostic dilemmas or establishing a histopathologic diagnosis.

Special Treatments or Services

• Courier service available: 732-235-8768
• Fax reporting available: 732-235-8770

We provide the highest quality diagnostic service to you and your patients through timely, accurate diagnoses. Personalized direct communication with the referring physician is available. Each specimen is expeditiously processed and evaluated by a board-certified pediatric pathologist with a background in obstetrics and gynecology, with proven expertise in the diagnostic nuances of perinatal pathology. 

Point-of-Care Testing assists with the implementation and monitoring of clinical laboratory programs administered by the Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, including programs within RWJMS (including RWJUMG) and at HIV testing sites. 

Point of Care services are available at each clinical facility, so long as the required training, proficiency testing, quality control procedures and validation procedures are performed by the clinical staff in the facility. The Robert Wood Johnson Department of Pathology and Clinical Laboratory Medicine oversees this program and provides Bioanalytical Laboratory Directorship (BLD) and all necessary state and federal licensing for each site. 

Dariusz Galkowski
125 Paterson Street - MEB 212
New Brunswick, NJ 08901
Email: galkowd1@rwjms.rutgers.edu

Supported by grants from the NJ Department of Health - Division of HIV, STD & TB Services, the Rutgers University - Robert Wood Johnson Medical School - Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine provides Rapid HIV Test Support to more than 100 sites throughout NJ where rapid HIV testing is available.

More Information

Rutgers Health
1 World's Fair Drive - Second Floor
Somerset, NJ 08873
Phone: 732-743-3630

The Contact Allergy Testing Clinic helps identify the cause of skin rashes.

A common cause of skin rashes is allergy to materials in the home and workplace. This condition is "contact dermatitis," and the rash may burn or itch. The allergens or products, ingredients, chemicals, or materials that people may be allergic to include:

• Cleansers
• Dyes
• Flavorings
• Fragrances
• Metals
• Preservatives
• Topical antibiotics
• Topical creams and ointments 

To identify the cause of the rash, our specialists can run contact allergy testing (patch testing). Unlike the more common "prick testing" and radioallergosorbent (RAST) tests, patch testing uses no needles and does not require blood tests. The test involves taping allergens to your back. These "patches" remain on for two days before removal. We then read the patches, return them to your back, and then read them again after two more days. If we find the cause of the rash, removal of a responsible allergen from a person’s environment can occur. If cause of the rash is not due to an identified allergen, patients will know their discomfort is not the result of most common allergens.

The Cosmetic Dermatology program helps people achieve a more youthful appearance through the correction of fine lines and wrinkles, removal of unwanted hair and veins, and elimination of age spots. We provide leading-edge aesthetic treatment options. 

The services we offer include:

• Botox treatment, Restylane, and other fillers
• Chemical peels
• Correction of fine lines and wrinkles
• Elimination of age spots
• Laser-assisted hair removal
• Leg vein therapy
• Microdermabrasion
• Photo rejuvenation

The physicians in our cosmetics program are on the faculty of Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, a part of Rutgers University, one of the top research institutions in America. Our doctors are active in clinical research and in teaching about all aspects of dermatology. Each brings leading-edge knowledge from the classroom to the exam room.

The Center for Dermatology provides a full range of dermatology services for adults and children. Our physicians offer expertise in medical and surgical dermatology, as well as in the study and treatment of skin cancer and common skin diseases including:

• Acne
• Contact dermatitis
• Rare skin diseases such as
  • Blistering diseases
  • Hair loss disorders
  • Lupus
• Rosacea
• Psoriasis
• Warts

The Melanoma and Pigmented Lesion Center provides treatment and care of melanoma, pigmented lesions, and other skin irregularities. We practice the latest techniques and approaches to identify conditions so that patients can receive the best treatment options available.

Our physicians are on the faculty of Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, a part of Rutgers University, one of the top research institutions in America. Our doctors are active in clinical research and in teaching about all aspects of dermatology. Many of our physicians also have national and international recognition for their experience with dermatoscopy, the examination of skin lesions with a dermatoscope, an instrument that uses high-power lenses for close-up views. Dermatoscopy is one of the latest and most accurate methods of managing pigmented lesions.

The treatments and services we offer also include:

• Dermatopathology (the study of skin diseases at a microscopic and molecular level)
• Image analysis
• Screening and management of nevi (skin lesions) and melanoma

Our staff has a commitment to prevention, education, treatment, and monitoring of patients with melanoma, pigmented lesions, and other conditions, as well as to people who may be at risk. The Rutgers Health Melanoma and Pigmented Lesion Center can provide the diagnosis and care you need for skin conditions.

Mohs micrographic surgery is the most effective method for eradicating basal and squamous cell carcinoma, common types of skin cancer, with nearly a 100 percent cure rate. It is the treatment of choice for facial skin lesions and recurring lesions on other parts of the body.

Physicians in the Rutgers Health Mohs Micrographic Dermatologic Surgery program specialize in the procedure. Our doctors are on the faculty of Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, a part of Rutgers University, one of the top research institutions in America. Our doctors are active in clinical research and in teaching about all aspects of dermatology and skin cancer. Each brings life-changing knowledge from the classroom to the exam room.

The treatment we provide for many types of skin cancers can be completed within a few hours. Same-day reconstruction of affected skin areas may also be available.

The Rutgers Health Pediatric Dermatology Clinic treats children who may be experiencing unusual conditions of the skin, hair, and nails. Parents or guardians of pediatric dermatology patients may obtain a referral from other doctors to see us, or may choose to make an appointment on their own.

The types of conditions we often see in our clinic include:

• Acne
• Eczema
• Minor skin problems
• Viral rashes
• Warts

We also examine less common types of skin conditions, such as:

• Birthmarks
• Contact dermatitis
• Hair loss
• Hemangiomas
• Psoriasis
• Skin growths

We also perform minor surgical procedures (those that can proceed without anesthesia or under local anesthesia), such as wart treatment, removal or biopsy of skin growths, and certain laser procedures.

Photodynamic Therapy and Phototherapy
These two procedures involve the use of light in the treatment of skin diseases. Phototherapy uses ultraviolet (UV) light to treat disorders such as psoriasis, vitiligo, severe eczema, and a certain type of skin cancer called cutaneous T-cell lymphoma. Patients come to our office to receive phototherapy treatments (narrow band UVB or PUVA) usually 2-3 times per week, while standing in a phototherapy booth. Although dermatologists generally recommend avoiding exposure to UV light, these skin problems may actually be helped by light treatments in many people. Since so many different skin conditions can look alike and each patient has different skin types, the UV treatments are designed to treat the specific condition in that specific patient unlike commercially available UV light, or “tanning” which should never be used.

Narrow UVB Phototherapy
Narrow UVB Phototherapy is a treatment for skin eruptions using artificial ultraviolet light. The initials UVB stand for the type B ultraviolet, the part of sunlight that gives one sunburn. Carefully controlled, it is an extremely effective tool for several serious skin diseases.

PUVA
PUVA is a combination of psoralen (P) and long-wave ultraviolet radiation (UVA) that is used to treat several severe skin conditions. Psoralen is a drug that makes the skin disease more sensitive to ultraviolet light. This allows the deeply penetrating UVA band of light to work on the skin.

Photodynamic Therapy (PDT)
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is also called photoradiation therapy, phototherapy, or photochemotherapy. It involves using drugs, called photosensitizing agents, along with light to kill cancer cells. The drugs only work after they have been activated by certain kinds of light. Depending on the part of the body being treated, the photosensitizing agent is either injected into the blood stream or applied to the skin. After the drug is absorbed by the cancer cells a light source is applied only to the area to be treated. The light causes the drug to react with oxygen, which forms a chemical that kills the cancer cells. PDT may also work by destroying the blood vessels that feed the cancer cells and by alerting the immune system to attack the cancer.

Platelet Rich Plasma (PRP) is a treatment that is used to accelerate healing. It is also used to regenerate hair loss. PRP is a three-step process in which blood is taken, processed, and then injected into the scalp. 

For best results, consistent treatment is important. Treatments are performed roughly once a month for the first three to four months, and then every three to six months. Results can first be seen within two to three months.

Mohs surgery is a precise method of tumor removal developed by Dr. Frederic E. Mohs. It is the most advanced and effective treatment for the eradication of basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma with nearly a 100 percent cure rate. The procedure involves removal of the entire skin cancer layer by layer, while leaving as much of the normal skin as possible. It is the treatment of choice for facial skin lesions and recurrent lesions elsewhere. Many types of skin cancers can be treated and reconstructed on the same day.

Dr. Firoz is a fellow of the American College of Mohs Surgery (ACMS) and leads the Mohs surgery team in our outpatient clinic facility.

Shave biopsy or “tangential excision” is a procedure which uses a sterile blade or a curved sterile razor blade to remove a skin surface growth off under local anesthesia. A “curette” does a similar task with a special scraping tool. These are often done to remove a small growth and confirm its nature by sending it for pathologic analysis, at the same time.

We offer the following procedures:

• Laser assisted hair removal
• Laser treatment of vascular and pigmented lesions
• Laser skin rejuvenation
• Dermal Fillers
• Botox Cosmetic Treatment
• Microdermabrasion
• Chemical Peels
• Sclerotherapy

Punch Biopsy is typically used by dermatologists to sample skin rashes or to remove small growths. After a local anesthetic is injected, a biopsy punch, which is basically a small (1 to 4 mm diameter) version of a cookie cutter, is used to cut out a cylindrical piece of skin. The hole may be closed with a suture and heals with minimal scarring.

Excisional Biopsy is the process of removing the entire skin growth with the use of a sterile scalpel. Local anesthesia is injected to the area before the tissue is removed and the wound is repaired using sterile sutures. The skin growth removed is then sent for pathology for diagnostic purposes.

ED&C is the scraping and burning of skin growths which is done for less serious skin cancers, pre-cancers and benign growths. A local anesthetic is injected, and then the abnormal tissue is scraped off with a curette. The area is then cauterized until bleeding stops. This may be repeated if the growth is cancerous. The wound will need to be dressed until it heals, and it usually leaves a small white mark after it heals.

Intralesional Injection is the direct placement of a medication into a problem skin area through a very fine needle. Most often a dilute solution of triamcinolone (Kenalog) is used. Acne cysts, keloid scars, alopecia, psoriasis and chronic forms of eczema may be treated this way. If too much medication is used, a white spot or dent may develop, which is usually temporary.

Cryosurgery is used frequently by dermatologists to treat various skin problems. Liquid nitrogen is sprayed on to the area of skin involved. Light freezing causes peeling, moderate freezing may form blisters and hard freezing may form a scab. It is used for acne, scars, growths, pre-cancerous lesions and some skin cancers.

Acne surgery is the process of removing acne lesions, usually by opening up comedones (blackheads) and pimples by using a needle or small pointed blade and expressing the keratin plug with an extractor.